2015 Annual Report of the SSI Program

G. Research on Related Topics

The legislative mandate for this report requires inclusion of information about relevant research on the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program by the Social Security Administration (SSA) and others. Section 1 of this appendix describes SSA’s major ongoing projects. Section 2 presents a bibliography of studies regarding SSI payment levels, recipients, and reform proposals published in the past 10 years by both public and private entities.

1. Ongoing Research

a. SSI Policy Simulations

Using Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) data matched to administrative records, SSA researchers have developed a model of financial eligibility for SSI to estimate the rate of participation among the eligible elderly and the effects of various options to modify the SSI program (see Davies et al. 2001/2002). The model suggests that the rate of participation among the eligible elderly was about 62 percent in 1991. Estimates for 1996 and 2004 are also near this level; however, when measurement error is reduced by using administrative measures of OASDI income rather than the amounts self-reported in the SIPP, participation rates are over 72 percent (see Strand et al. 2009). An updated version of the model uses the 2008 SIPP matched to administrative records.

We used the model to simulate the potential effects of several approaches to expand the SSI program to fight poverty among the elderly. Approaches focusing on incremental changes in the Federal benefit rate, the general income exclusion, and the resources test appear roughly equally effective in reducing the poverty gap among the elderly on a cost-equivalent basis, while two approaches focusing on relaxing the earned income exclusion are less effective (Davies, Rupp, and Strand 2004). We expanded the model to address SSI participation and financial eligibility among the working-age disabled and to assess SSI benefit restructuring options for the entire SSI population. The working-age model allows for the identification of working-age persons by their SSI financial eligibility status, Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) insured status, and participation in both programs. We used the expanded model to assess SSI’s role in complementing SSDI and enhancing the safety net for the working-age population (Rupp, Davies, and Strand 2008). We simulated the effects of several approaches to changing in-kind support and maintenance rules and options for altering the calculation of the Federal benefit rate for certain living arrangement categories (Balkus et al. 2009). We also studied eligibility for Medicare buy-in programs with the financial eligibility model (see Rupp and Sears 2000; Sears 2001/2002). In unpublished internal research, we used the model to estimate the size of the population potentially eligible for the Medicare Part D low income subsidy.

b. National Survey of SSI Children and Families

The National Survey of SSI Children and Families (NSCF) addressed a number of agency policy and program objectives. One objective was to address issues specifically pertaining to the effects of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (welfare reform). However, the survey as designed is useful for the study of a broader range of issues of current interest to policy makers. Most importantly, it allows for the analysis of a nationally representative cross-section of SSI recipient children aged 0-17 and young adults aged 18-23. Among the questions the survey answers are the following:

•	What are the characteristics of SSI children?

•	What alternative sources of care are available to disabled children who lose SSI benefits?

•	How is quality of life and utilization of medical services impacted by gaining or losing SSI benefits?

•	What is the cost of caring for a child with disabilities?

•	What are the uses of SSI benefits?

•	What is the impact of the nature and severity of the child’s disabilities on parental labor force participation?

The NSCF data collection began July 2001 and concluded June 2002. The NSCF sample size was considerably larger for SSI children and young adults than the sample size available in other surveys. Altogether, the NSCF includes 8,535 completed interviews with 5,006 individuals who received SSI benefits in December 2000 and 5,033 who received SSI benefits in December 1996. The NSCF public-use data file and documentation is available on our website at www.socialsecurity.gov/disabilityresearch/nscf.htm. Davies and Rupp (2005/2006) provides an overview of the survey and describes some key features. We discuss other analyses using these data in section c, Analytic Studies, below. Although it was a cross-sectional data collection effort, we continue to update the match between NSCF and SSI administrative records with longitudinal data on SSI program participation.

c. Analytic Studies

A number of studies by SSA researchers provide a better understanding of the SSI program, the elderly and disabled target populations, program interactions, and the role of the SSI program in the United States social safety net. Nicholas (2013) as well as Koenig and Rupp (2003/2004) estimate the prevalence, characteristics, and poverty status of SSI recipients living with others on SSI (who are not an eligible spouse) in the context of their individual, family and household units. In 2003 and again in 2005, SSA provided funding for interviewing supplemental samples of SSI and SSDI beneficiaries to increase the SIPP sample size available for analyses of these target groups. DeCesaro and Hemmeter (2008) examines the characteristics of SSDI and SSI program participants using the 2003 supplemental sample combined with the 2001 SIPP, both matched to administrative records. Bailey and Hemmeter (2014) updated this research note using the 2008 SIPP matched to 2010 administrative records to examine the characteristics of SSDI and SSI program participants. Rupp and Davies (2004) tracks survey respondents from the 1984 SIPP for 14 years using administrative records on SSI and SSDI participation and death events to assess the relationship between self-reported health status, disabilities, mortality, and participation in the SSI and SSDI programs. Weathers et al. (2007) uses a unique longitudinal dataset based on administrative data from the National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID) linked to our administrative records to conduct a case study of SSI children who applied for postsecondary education at NTID. Hemmeter, Donovan, Cobb and Asbury (2015) compare the outcomes of participants in the Marriott Foundation for People with Disabilities Bridges from School to Work program with non-participating SSI recipients. Another study uses our administrative records from August 2005 through August 2007 to analyze SSI recipients who lived in counties and parishes affected by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (Davies and Hemmeter 2010). Hemmeter (2009) examines the occupational distribution of SSI disability recipients aged 18-61 who work. Hemmeter and Gilby (2009) analyzes age-18 redetermination outcomes for SSI youth, including appeals of initial cessations and subsequent reapplications for benefits after a period of ineligibility, while Hemmeter (2012) looks at changes in diagnostic codes following the age-18 redetermination. Another research study examines the subsequent participation in the SSDI and SSI programs by individuals whose eligibility for those programs ceased through a continuing disability review because of medical improvements (Hemmeter and Stegman 2013). Rupp (2012) analyzes factors affecting initial disability allowance rates for the SSDI and SSI programs and finds that demographic and diagnostic characteristics of applicants and the local unemployment rate substantially affect the initial allowance rate.

Using data from the Current Population Survey matched to our administrative records, Nicholas and Wiseman (2009 and 2010) assess the impact of using administrative records on poverty estimation among elderly SSI recipients using the official and alternative definitions of poverty. Wiseman and Ycas (2008) compares the Canadian social assistance program for the elderly with the SSI program, looking at program structure, cost, and consequences for elderly poverty rates. Kemp (2010) conducts a descriptive analysis of the SSI student earned income exclusion. One ongoing study is examining the growth in SSI applications and awards among children. Rupp, Hemmeter, and Davies (2015) looked at SSI children by year and age at award and analyzed transitions (e.g., onto SSDI, off SSDI and SSI, mortality) as they age into adulthood. Parent, Sayman and Kulzer (2012) provides a comprehensive profile of the characteristics of disability beneficiaries with a connection to workers’ compensation or public disability benefits. Parent et al. (2012) found that 8.3 percent of disabled workers who have this connection tend to be economically better off, more frequently middle-aged, male, afflicted with a musculoskeletal and connective tissue disorder, and tend to wait longer to apply for SSDI benefits after onset than the general disabled-worker population.

Several studies focus on the distributional effects of the SSI program through its interactions with other Federal and State programs. Dushi and Rupp (2013) uses longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study to assess the role of SSI and related social safety net programs in providing a buffer against the potentially adverse effects of disability shocks in the near-elderly population on financial well-being. Rupp et al. (2007) provides an empirical analysis of the SSI Federal benefit rate for assessing benefit adequacy among elderly Social Security beneficiaries and the effectiveness of the SSI benefit eligibility screens for targeting economically vulnerable elderly beneficiaries. Balkus et al. (2009) examines the distributional effects of replacing current policies on living arrangements and in-kind support with a simpler, cost neutral alternative. Strand and Rupp (2007) highlights the distributional implications of Social Security reform scenarios involving a potential shift from wage indexing to price indexing or longevity indexing in the establishment of initial benefits. Strand (2010) uses matched SIPP records to examine potential eligibility for three major means-tested programs (SSI, Medicaid, and Food Stamp) among near retirees aged 55-64 and eventual SSI participation upon reaching age 65. Rupp, Davies, and Strand (2008) find that over one-third of the working-age population is covered by SSI in the event of a severe disability, which provides disability benefit coverage to many who are not SSDI-insured and enhances the potential bundle of disability cash benefits among a substantial segment of those who are SSDI-insured.

Ongoing work and previously published papers by Rupp and Riley are based on a linkage of individual-level administrative data from SSA and the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. First, Rupp and Riley (2011) analyzes longitudinal patterns of interaction between SSDI and SSI and finds that one quarter of the year 2000 cohort of first-ever, working-age disability awardees received benefits from both programs over a 60-month period. A second paper (Rupp and Riley 2012) analyzes the effect of longitudinal interactions between the SSDI and SSI programs in providing access to Medicare and Medicaid, and finds that SSI facilitates high levels of Medicaid coverage for SSI awardees overall and provides access to Medicaid for many SSDI awardees during the 24-month Medicare waiting period. A third paper (Riley and Rupp, 2012) tracks expenditures for 2000-2006 for the SSDI, SSI, Medicare, and Medicaid programs and finds that SSI is a relatively low-expenditure program with important implications for the other three programs. The authors conclude that SSI and Medicaid provide a temporary safety net supporting SSDI beneficiaries during their SSDI and Medicare waiting periods. Ongoing work by the authors focuses on estimated cumulative expenditure patterns over the working-age adult portion of the life cycle for the year 2000 awardees for the four programs (SSDI, SSI, Medicare, and Medicaid). An additional piece of ongoing analysis focuses on the effect of State variations in Medicaid enrollment policy and implementation regimes on Medicaid coverage and expenditures. The three State policy regimes compared include: (1) automatic enrollment of SSI awardees; (2) requiring a separate Medicaid application in “Criteria States”; and (3) more restrictive Medicaid eligibility requirements in “209B States.” Coe and Rupp (2013) analyzes whether disability benefit recipients (SSDI and SSI) in States with easier access to health insurance will be more likely to work and exit from SSDI and/or SSI than their peers in States where health insurance is more difficult to access.

Wamhoff and Wiseman (2005/2006) examines the financial consequences of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)-to-SSI transfers and develops new estimates of both the prevalence of receipt of SSI benefits among families receiving cash assistance from TANF and the proportion of new SSI awards that go to adults and children residing in families receiving TANF-related benefits. Trenkamp and Wiseman (2007) addresses the connections between the SSI and Food Stamp programs. Meijer, Karoly, and Michaud (2009, 2010) analyzes eligibility for the Medicare Part D Low Income Subsidy, which relies on a simplified SSI methodology.

A number of studies utilize the NSCF to focus on children and young adults receiving SSI. Rupp et al. (2005/2006) presents highlights from the survey characterizing SSI children with disabilities and their families. Hemmeter (2011) analyzes the unmet health care needs of SSI children after the age-18 redetermination. Additional research studies employment and caregiving patterns of parents of SSI children (Rupp and Ressler 2009), examines employment and program outcomes among young adults after their eligibility redetermination at age 18 (Hemmeter, Kauff, and Wittenburg 2009), and analyzes factors affecting out-of-pocket medical expenses and unmet health care needs of disabled children (DeCesaro and Hemmeter 2009). These papers appear in a special issue of the Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation (volume 30, number 3, 2009) devoted to SSI children and young adults and the transition to adulthood. The special issue also includes a paper that introduces the issue and examines the life-cycle human capital development and longer-term SSI and earnings outcomes of SSI youth as they transition to adulthood (Davies, Rupp, and Wittenburg 2009), as well as two papers that focus on SSA’s Youth Transition Demonstration (YTD) (Fraker and Rangarajan 2009; Luecking and Wittenburg 2009). The articles from the special issue are available on SSA’s web site at www.socialsecurity.gov/policy/JVR.html. Camacho and Hemmeter (2013) summarize the findings from two earlier YTD projects.

d. Evaluation of the Ticket to Work Program

The Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999 required the Commissioner of Social Security to provide independent evaluations to assess the effectiveness of the Ticket to Work program. We conducted all Ticket to Work evaluation reports through an independent evaluation contractor, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. Our contractor has completed the evaluation of the Ticket to Work program. There are seven Ticket to Work evaluation reports in all, and all reports are available on SSA’s website at www.socialsecurity.gov/disabilityresearch/twe_reports.htm.

The findings through the fourth report indicated that, while the program may have significant potential, we need to improve both beneficiary awareness of the program and employment network (EN) incentives. Partly in response to these findings, we implemented new regulations for the Ticket to Work program in July 2008 to improve EN and beneficiary participation and outcomes. The fifth and sixth reports consist of studies focused on the employment efforts of working-age SSI recipients and SSDI beneficiaries, and on the Social Security work incentives and supports designed to encourage their employment. The seventh (final) report focused primarily on the overall success of the Ticket to Work program and on the effect of the changes to the Ticket to Work regulations in 2008.

Overall, the Ticket to Work evaluation finds that beneficiaries who use Ticket to Work generally like the program, that the program has increased use of return-to-work services, and those who participate in Ticket to Work have better outcomes than those who return to work without the help of SSA-financed employment services. However, we also find that the increase in service use and better outcomes by participants has not translated into net increases in benefit suspension or termination for work or an increase in the number of months spent in suspension or termination for work. This suggests that Ticket to Work has primarily extended the types of services that were available under the program that preceded Ticket to Work, where services were offered only though State vocational rehabilitation agencies, and has achieved the same level of success as before Ticket to Work. More beneficiaries are getting these services now, but the success rate has not measurably changed.

The Ticket to Work evaluation has also produced two by-products that will continue beyond the end of our specific evaluation efforts for the Ticket to Work program. One of the foundations of the evaluation was an annual research file, the Disability Analysis File (DAF), previously called the Ticket Research File, which contains the agency's disparate administrative data resources for all beneficiaries age 10 to full retirement age who have received disability cash benefits from the SSI; Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI); or both programs since 1996. We initially produced the DAF to support the Ticket to Work evaluation, and researchers now use it for a wide array of disability-related research.

A second foundation of the Ticket to Work evaluation was the National Beneficiary Survey (NBS). In the NBS, we collected information that is not available from our administrative records from a representative sample of SSI and OASDI disability beneficiaries. Key items of interest in the NBS include work attitudes and work-related activities, health and functional status, education, access to health insurance, household composition, and sources of income. We implemented the first four rounds between 2004 and 2010, with a particular focus on participation in the Ticket to Work program. We will conduct three additional rounds in 2015, 2017, and 2019 with a broader focus on all SSA beneficiaries who work.

Other researchers and policy analysts within SSA and at other Federal agencies and academic institutions use the DAF and the NBS for general disability research and analysis not limited to Ticket to Work program participants. Examples of these papers include: interactions between SSDI and SSI for new beneficiaries with disabilities (Rupp and Riley 2011); the differences in employment outcomes between young participants (ages 18 to 30) with psychiatric disabilities versus young participants with other disabilities (Schimmel, Liu, and Croake 2012); the impact of workplace injuries on receipt of SSDI benefits (O'Leary et al. 2012); and work activities and employment outcomes for our beneficiaries with disabilities in seven articles in a special issue of the Social Security Bulletin (volume 71, number 3, 2011).

e. Homeless Outreach Projects and Evaluation

In 2004, through the Homeless Outreach Project (HOPE), we awarded funds to 41 service providers nationwide to provide outreach services to people who are homeless. We trained these service providers so they could help individuals who are homeless with our disability application process. In October 2007, Westat, the evaluation contractor, released the final evaluation report. We are currently conducting a longitudinal evaluation of HOPE. Findings from this analysis will be available in 2015.

f. Youth Transition Demonstration

The YTD established partnerships to improve employment outcomes for youths age 14-25 who receive (or could receive) SSI or OASDI payments based on their own disability. The YTD projects included ser­vice delivery systems and a broad array of services and supports to assist youth with disabilities in their transition from school to employment and to help them gain economic self-sufficiency.

YTD began in 2003, with seven projects in six States. In 2007, we piloted new projects in five States, choosing three new projects in Florida, Maryland, and West Virginia. These three projects joined three (Colorado; Bronx County, New York; and Erie County, New York) of the original seven projects in a random assignment study. This study will produce the first evaluation of the empirical evidence of the effects of youth transition programs and modified SSI work incentives.

The modified SSI program rules that we tested under the YTD included five program waivers.

•	Despite the finding of a continuing disability review or an age-18 medical redetermination that an individual is no longer eligible for benefits, we continued paying benefits for as long as the individual continued to be a YTD participant.

•	The student earned income exclusion (section 1612(b)(1) of the Social Security Act (Act)), which normally applies only to students who are age 21 or younger, applied to all participants who met school attendance requirements.

•	The general earned-income exclusions (section 1612(b)(4) of the Act) permit the exclusion of $65 plus half of what an individual earns in excess of $65. For the YTD, we excluded the first $65 plus three-fourths of any additional earnings.

•	We extended the SSI program’s treatment of federally supported Individual Development Accounts (IDA) to IDAs that do not involve Federal funds.

•

Ordinarily, a plan to achieve self-support (PASS) must specify an employment goal that refers to getting a particular kind of job or starting a particular business. For the YTD, we approved an otherwise satisfactory PASS that had either career exploration or postsecondary education as its goal. Income and assets that an individual used for PASS expenses did not count when we determined SSI eligibility and payment amount.

The YTD projects in Colorado and New York ended in 2010. The Florida, Maryland, and West Virginia projects ended in 2012. We have released the 12-month, post-random-assignment reports for all the sites to the public. We published a 24-month, post-random-assignment report covering all the sites in the February 2014 edition of the Social Security Bulletin (Hemmeter 2014). We posted the comprehensive final report of the six random assignment projects to our website in November 2014. This demonstration produced mixed evidence on whether YTD impacts on paid employment is sustainable.

Two of the six projects showed an increase in employment three years after random assignment. Florida and Bronx, New York showed positive impacts on paid employment during the year after participants entered the evaluation. In Florida, 23 percent of participants in the program group worked for pay during that year, compared with just 13 percent of control group members. Because several youths took advantage of the modified program rules (listed in bullets above), participants of five of the six projects had higher total income from earnings and disability benefits in the third year after random assignment. These impacts ranged from $1,010 higher total income in West Virginia to $1,729 higher in Bronx, New York. The YTD showed that substantial doses of well-designed service to youth with disabilities can improve key transition outcomes in the medium term.

We will follow participants using administrative data and conduct cost-benefit analyses at specified periods, such as 5 to 10 years to test the longer-term outcomes of these projects.

Our findings from YTD influenced the development of Promoting Readiness of Minors in SSI
(PROMISE) project, a joint initiative of SSA and the Departments of Education, Health and Human Services, and Labor that funds model demonstration projects in several States to promote positive outcomes for children with disabilities who receive SSI and their families (described in section j).

g. Occupational Information System

To determine whether disability applicants qualify for benefits, our adjudicators follow a sequential five-step evaluation process. At steps four and five, we require information about work in the national economy to determine whether claimants’ impairment-related limitations would prevent them from working. The majority of our claims are decided at steps four and five. Currently, we base these medical-vocational decisions on the occupational information found in the Department of Labor's (DOL) Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) and its companion volume, the Selected Characteristics of Occupations. Although DOL did not design the DOT for our use, we adapted our disability program to it by incorporating many of its concepts and definitions into our regulations and policy. DOL, however, stopped updating the DOT in 1991 and replaced it with the Occupational Information Network (O*NET), which we are not able to use in our disability adjudication process without significant modifications. We could not identify any other existing Occupational Information System (OIS) that would meet our unique needs.

In July 2012, we signed an interagency agreement with the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) to test the feasibility of using the National Compensation Survey (NCS) platform to collect updated occupational information. Under our agreement, BLS will collect information about the physical, skill level, and mental/cognitive requirements of occupations as well as the environmental factors to which workers are exposed. This information will support our current disability policy and provide us with data about work in the economy to inform future policy. We signed additional agreements with BLS for fiscal years (FY) 2013 through 2015 to continue testing. In FY 2013, BLS conducted feasibility testing in three phases. After each test phase, we worked together to improve the survey tools and testing protocols. We also met periodically with DOL's Employment and Training Administration (ETA) to discuss how to incorporate elements of O*NET with the data collected by BLS. In fiscal year 2015, BLS is performing a large-scale preproduction data collection test that will conclude in the third quarter. BLS will begin collecting production data in late FY 2015. In FY 2014, we began working with a contractor to outline the requirements for the web-based platform to house the OIS, and in FY 2015, we will begin developing the platform. In late FY 2015 we will receive a limited amount of data from BLS's preproduction test to begin testing the information technology platform.

In FY 2016, BLS will complete the first round of production data collection, and release the first production estimates. We will continue meeting with DOL's ETA to discuss how O*NET data can benefit our OIS, and we will work with the Office of Disability Policy to implement policy changes that will allow us to use the new data.

h. Homeless with Schizophrenia Presumptive Disability Pilot Demonstration

The goal of the Homeless with Schizophrenia Presumptive Disability (HSPD) Pilot Demonstration is to improve the economic well-being of adult SSI applicants who are both homeless and diagnosed with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. We partnered with clinicians and case managers in California from the Health Services Agencies of San Francisco and Santa Cruz counties, the Department of Public Health of the City of San Francisco, and the Department of Mental Health of Los Angeles County, who are actively assisting their clients to navigate the SSI application process and have established relationships with patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder who are also homeless. There were two main features of the project: (1) the SSI application assistance; and (2) the use of presumptive disability (PD). The clinicians and case managers assisted these individuals with gathering supporting medical evidence, coordinating medical appointments, and submitting the SSI application. Along with the SSI application, a Presumptive Disability Recommendation Form, created for this pilot demonstration, was also submitted. Clinicians from the community agencies certified that the applicant met the SSA criteria for a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. To provide economic relief to the applicant while we processed the application, we awarded up to 6 months of SSI payments to the applicant based on PD. Applicants were not required to pay back these payments if we ultimately denied their applications, as long as we did not deny the applications for non-medical reasons; therefore, there must be a high degree of probability that the applicant was disabled when we conferred PD SSI payments. Our field offices generally make PD findings only for specific disability categories, which do not include schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder.

Project implementation began in April 2012, with a goal of recruiting at least 200 participants. We met this enrollment goal and completed the implementation phase in April 2014. The community partners identified 260 individuals to assist through the SSI application process. Among the 238 we are using for our evaluation, we approved 223 of these applicants, denied 14, and 1 had no decision. We are now moving to the evaluation phase of the demonstration.

In our evaluation, we will examine whether the program improves the administration of the SSI application and determination process. The evaluation is based on a quasi-experimental design, in which we will compare outcomes for applicants who receive assistance and PD payments with applicants from a previous period and applicants in surrounding areas. Within this framework, we plan to examine differences in initial allowance rates, appeals, failure-to-cooperate denials, processing times, total payments, exits from SSI, mortality, and the need for consultative exams. We expect to complete the evaluation by Summer 2015.

i. Promoting Readiness of Minors in SSI

PROMISE is a joint project between SSA and the Departments of Education (ED), Labor, and Health and Human Services. The goals of the project are to improve the provision and coordination of services and supports for children with disabilities who receive SSI and their families in order to achieve improved education and employment outcomes. The targeted outcomes include completing postsecondary education and job training to obtain competitive employment in an integrated setting that may result in long-term reductions in the child recipient's reliance on SSI. In 2013, ED funded model demonstration projects in five individual States (Arkansas, California, Maryland, New York, and Wisconsin) and one consortium of States (Arizona, Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Utah) for 5 years. SSA is responsible for evaluating PROMISE.

Each PROMISE project will enroll 2,000 youths; youths ages 14-16 are eligible and will be randomly assigned to a treatment or control group within each project. Each PROMISE project will provide youths randomly assigned into the treatment group services including: case management; benefits counseling; career and work-based learnings experiences; and parent/guardian training and information. Youths randomly assigned to a control group will receive the services usually available in their communities.

The PROMISE evaluation will include process, impact, and cost-benefit analyses. Enrollment began in April 2014 and will continue through April 2016. Services will continue through late 2018. The first evaluation reports (on the process analyses) will be available in late 2016 followed by the interim impact and services report in 2018. The final evaluation report (on the longer-term impacts and cost-benefit analyses) will be available in 2022.

j. Early Intervention

The fiscal year 2015 budget includes funding for early intervention demonstrations. These projects will provide a combination of services, supports, information, and program changes designed to reduce entry to the SSDI and SSI programs, focusing on helping individuals with disabilities remain in the workforce. We are planning rigorous experimental designs and evaluations that will produce an evidence base for potential policy and program changes. At this time, we are identifying potential demonstrations; we will provide more detail in future reports.

2. Bibliography of Recent Publications

Aizer, Anna, Nora Gordon, and Melissa Kearney. Exploring the Growth of the Child SSI Caseload in the Context of the Broader Policy and Demographic Landscape. NBER Disability Research Center Working Paper No. NB-13-02, National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2013.

Altshuler, Norma, Sarah Prenovitz, Bonnie O’Day, and Gina Livermore. Provider Experiences Under the Revised Ticket to Work Regulations. Final Report. Washington, DC: Mathematica Policy Research, 2011.

American Academy of Pediatrics. Council on Children with Disabilities. “Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for Children and Youth with Disabilities.” Pediatrics 124, 6 (December 2009): 1702-1709.

Aron, Laudan Y. and Pamela Loprest. Meeting the Needs of Children with Disabilities. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press, 2007.

Autor, David, Amitabh Chandra, and Mark Duggan. Public Health Expenditures on the Working Age Disabled: Assessing Medicare and Medicaid Utilization of SSDI and SSI Recipients. National Bureau of Economic Research SSA Project No. NB09-08, September 2011.

Bailey, Michelle Stegman and Jeffrey Hemmeter. Characteristics of Noninstitutionalized DI and SSI Program Participants, 2010 Update. Research and Statistics Note 2014-02, Social Security Administration, February 2014.

Balkus, Richard, L. Scott Muller, Mark Nadel, and Michael Wiseman. “The Challenge of Growth: Public Disability Benefits in the United States.” In Sick Societies? Trends in Disability Benefits in Post-Industrial Welfare States, edited by Peter A. Kemp, Annika Sunden, and Bernhard Bakker Tauritz. Geneva, Switzerland: International Social Security Association, 2006.

Balkus, Richard, James Sears, Susan Wilschke, and Bernard Wixon. “Simplifying the Supplemental Security Income Program: Options for Eliminating the Counting of In-Kind Support and Maintenance.” Social Security Bulletin 68, 4 (2009): 1-25.

Barden, Bret. Assessing and Serving TANF Recipients with Disabilities, OPRE Report 2013-56, Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation; Administration for Children and Families; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, December 2013.

Battaglia, Carol. “SSI and Medicaid Recipients Have a Responsibility to Report Changes that Can Affect Benefits.” Exceptional Parent 37, 2 (February 2007): 47-48.

Ben-Shalom, Yonatan, and David Stapleton. “Long-Term Work Activity and Use of Employment Supports Among New Supplemental Security Income Recipients.” Social Security Bulletin 75, 1 (2015): 73-95.

________. The Work Experiences of New SSI Beneficiaries: A Longitudinal Perspective. Center for Studying Disability Policy Issue Brief Number 12-06. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. November 2012.

Ben-Shalom, Yonatan, David Stapleton, Dawn Phelps, and Maura Bardos. Longitudinal Statistics for New Supplemental Security Income Beneficiaries. Final Report. Report prepared for the Social Security Administration, November 2012.

Berkowitz, Edward D. and Larry DeWitt. 2013. The Other Welfare: Supplemental Security Income and U.S. Social Policy. New York, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013.

Berry, Hugh G. and Leslie J. Caplan. “Employment and Earnings Growth Among Transition-Age Supplemental Security Income Program Participants.” Journal of Disability Policy Studies 21, 3 (December 2010): 152-159.

Berry, Hugh G., Michael Ward, and Leslie Caplan. “Self-Determination and Access to Postsecondary Education in Transitioning Youths Receiving Supplemental Security Income Benefits.” Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 35, 2 (2012): 68-75.

Blyler, Crystal, Denise Hoffman, and Gina Livermore. Ticket to Work Participants: Then and Now. Center for Studying Disability Policy Issue Brief Number 13-02. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. May 2013.

Bond, Gary R, Haiyi Xie, and Robert E. Drake. “Can SSDI and SSI Beneficiaries with Mental Illness Benefit from Evidence-Based Supported Employment?” Psychiatric Services 58, 11 (November 2007): 1412-1420.

Burkhauser, Richard V. and Mary C. Daly. The Changing Role of Disabled Children Benefits. Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Economic Letter 2013-25, September 3, 2013.

________. The Declining Work and Welfare of People with Disabilities: What Went Wrong and a Strategy for Change. Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2011.

________. The Returns to Work for Children Leaving the SSI-Disabled Children Program. Financial Literacy Center Working Paper No. WR-802-SSA, A Joint Center of the RAND Corporation, Dartmouth College and the Wharton School, October 2010.

________. Testing Education Tools to Demonstrate Returns to Work for Children Aging Out of the SSI-Disabled Children Program. Financial Literacy Center Working Paper No. WR-896-SSA, A Joint Center of the RAND Corporation, Dartmouth College and the Wharton School, November 2011.

Burkhauser, Richard V., Mary C. Daly, and Philip R. de Jong. Curing the Dutch Disease: Lessons for United States Disability Policy. Michigan Retirement Research Center Working Paper No. 2008-188, University of Michigan Retirement Research Center, September 2008.

________. The Role of Disability Transfer Programs on the Economic Well Being of Working-Age People with Disabilities. Michigan Retirement Research Center Working Paper No. UM08-Q2, University of Michigan Retirement Research Center, October 2008.

Burkhauser, Richard V., Mary C. Daly, Jeff Larrimore, and Joyce Kwok. The Transformation of Who is Expected to Work in the United States and How it Changed the Lives of Single Mothers and People with Disabilities. Michigan Retirement Research Center Working Paper No. 2008-187, University of Michigan Retirement Research Center, September 2008.

Camacho, Christa Bucks, and Jeffrey Hemmeter. “Linking Youth Transition Support Services: Results from Two Demonstration Projects.” Social Security Bulletin 73, 1 (2013): 59-71.

Chatterji, Pinka and Ellen Meara. Health and Labor Market Consequences of Eliminating Federal Disability Benefits for Substance Abusers. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13407, September 2007.

Coe, Norma B. and Kalman Rupp. Does Access to Health Insurance Influence Work Effort Among Disability Cash Benefit Recipients. Center for Retirement Research Working Paper No. 2013-10, Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, April 2013.

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